Effects Of Hazardous Waste On Human Health – Ecosystem Service Value Assessment of Saline-Alkali Land Development in the Yellow River Delta-The Example of Huang Island

Closing the gaps and illuminating the blind spots in research on emerging pollutants: The Source-Pathway-Receptor-Impact-Mitigation (SPRIM) continuum as an organizing framework.

Effects Of Hazardous Waste On Human Health

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Microbial Applications For Sustainable Space Exploration Beyond Low Earth Orbit

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Learn The Basics Of Hazardous Waste

By Willis Gwenzi Willis Gwenzi Skillit Preprints.org Google Scholar Views Publications 1, 2, *, Tinoziwa T. Simbanegwi Tinoziwa T. Simbanegwi Skillit Preprints.org Google Scholar Views Publications 3 and Piotr Razimsky Piotr Razimski Skillit Preprints.org Google Scholar View Publications 4

Grassland Science and Renewable Plant Resources, Faculty of Biological Agronomy, University of Kassel, SteinstraSe 19, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany

Department of Soil Science and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, Environment and Food Systems, University of Zimbabwe, Mount Pleasant, Harare P.O. Box MP167, Zimbabwe

Submission Received: 9 January 2023 / Revised: 16 January 2023 / Accepted: 17 January 2023 / Published: 25 January 2023

The World Wide Waste Web

(This article belongs to the special issue Emerging Organic Contaminants in Aquatic Systems: A Focus on the Source-Pathway-Receptor-Effect-Mitigation Continuum)

Pharmaceuticals are widely used in Africa due to the high burden of human and animal diseases. However, there is still a lack of review of current practices and pollution risks arising from disposal of pharmaceuticals in low-income areas in Africa. Therefore, the present review examined the literature to address the following questions: (1) What are the key factors driving the accumulation of unused and expired pharmaceuticals?, (2) What are the interactions between unused and expired pharmaceuticals and waste water? (3) What are the current disposal practices for pharmaceuticals excreted in feces (feces and urine)?, (3) What are the potential environmental and human health hazards from current disposal practices?, and (4) What is the major research on disposal of pharmaceuticals in low-income settings? What are the requirements? Evidence shows that, in low-income areas, waste water consisting mainly of feces and urine that contains excreted pharmaceuticals is often treated in the case of open defecation without access to on-site sanitation systems such as pit latrines, septic tanks and End up in the environment. Unused and expired pharmaceuticals are disposed of in pit latrines, household solid waste, and/or incinerated. The pollution risks of current disposal practices are poorly understood, but pharmaceutical contamination of groundwater sources, including sources used to supply drinking water, may occur through strong hydrological connectivity between pit latrines and groundwater systems. . Potential high-risk pollution and human exposure hotspots are discussed. However, compared to other environmental compartments, the occurrence, prevalence, fate, and human health risks of pharmaceuticals in the pit latrine–groundwater continuum are still understudied. Future research directions to address these gaps are discussed using the Source-Pathway-Receptor-Impact-Mitigation (SPRIM) continuum as an organizing framework.

Unused pharmaceuticals; expired pharmaceuticals; disposal practices; pharmaceutical pollution; pit latrines; Hydrological Connectivity; low income countries; environmental hazards; human health hazards

A wide range of pharmaceuticals are widely used in animal and human health care in both high- and low-income countries. For example, predictions suggest that in 2020 alone, approximately 4.5 trillion doses of pharmaceuticals were used globally [1]. Efforts to improve animal and human health have seen an increase in the consumption of pharmaceuticals in low- and middle-income countries. Furthermore, following the global spread of COVID-19 in 2020, a rapid increase in the consumption of pharmaceuticals has been observed [2, 3]. However, the increased use of pharmaceuticals has potential unintended effects, including (1) accumulation of unused and expired pharmaceuticals and (2) increased release of pharmaceutical wastes into the environment and their associated ecological and human health risks [2]. However, studies on the latter dominate the literature compared to those examining unused and expired pharmaceuticals.

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The accumulation of unused and expired pharmaceuticals has attracted significant global research and policy attention, with preliminary studies being conducted in the context of developed countries [4, 5, 6]. There also exist several reviews focusing on developed regions or specific high-income countries in Europe and North America [7, 8, 9], while other studies provide a global overview [10, 11].

Research interest in unused or expired pharmaceuticals has recently been increasing in low- and middle-income countries. For example, several studies have examined (1) the occurrence and disposal of unused and expired pharmaceuticals in low- and middle-income countries located in Africa [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18], (2) Have investigated. ) Asia [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24], (3) South/Latin America [25, 26], (4) Caribbean and Pacific regions [27, 28], and Eastern Europe (e.g., Bulgaria, [29]; Romania, [30, 31]. These studies reflect the growing research and public interest in this topic.

The United States and various European countries adopted the disposal of unused or expired pharmaceuticals through take-back locations, which are available at retail, hospitals, clinical pharmacies, or law enforcement facilities [32, 33] . From time to time, additional temporary take-back sites are established for annual events such as National Drug Prescription Day [33]. Additionally, if the take-back option is not readily available, the FDA has published a list of pharmaceuticals (covering 15 active ingredients) that can be flushed down the sink or toilet. This list includes drugs that can lead to death if a single dose is taken improperly and/or the potential for abuse and/or misuse [34]. As assessed, pharmaceutical ingredients on the FDA’s “flush list” present negligible risk through consumption of water and fish [34, 35]. Methods of final disposal of pharmaceuticals may vary depending on the type and form of the drug. The World Health Organization provides guidelines on these methods which include high (>1200 °C) or moderate (≥850 °C) temperature incineration, stabilization by waste encapsulation or rooting, landfill disposal through highly engineered sanitary landfills, fast-flowing Waterways, and include. Chemical decomposition [35]. Disposal of pharmaceuticals through sewers, open non-engineered dumps, or burning in open containers is considered a last resort for some drugs [35]. However, limited information exists on the disposal of pharmaceuticals in low- and middle-income countries, compared to high-income regions such as Western Europe and North America.

Therefore, the present paper examines current disposal practices of unused and expired pharmaceuticals and their potential health risks, focusing on low-income settings. For the purpose of this review, these settings also include middle-income countries. This is because, unlike developed or high-income countries, even in middle-income countries such as South Africa and Brazil, many families have the same socio-economic status and lifestyle as low-income ones [36 ]. Such low-income settings often lack: (1) appropriate solid waste and wastewater management systems, (2) access to clean drinking water, (3) comprehensive environmental monitoring, and (4) global best in use and disposal. Knowledge of practices hazardous waste such as systematic take-back programs for unused and expired pharmaceuticals.

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The present review focusing on the family seeks to address the following questions; (1) What are the major factors driving the accumulation of unused and expired pharmaceuticals?, (2) What are the current disposal practices for unused and expired pharmaceuticals, and which ones are used and ultimately excreted? , and (3) What are the potential environmental and human health hazards posed by current disposal practices? Finally, future research directions to address these gaps are discussed using the Source-Pathway-Receptor-Impact-Mitigation (SPRIM) continuum as an organizing framework. The SPRIM continuum framework has been proposed as a powerful conceptual tool to identify well-studied aspects of emerging pollutants relative to less-studied pollutants [37]. In this regard, the available evidence for tracking pharmaceuticals along the SPRIM continuum was examined to identify aspects that have been poorly studied. Figure 1 summarizes the focus of the present paper, which includes; (1) factors increasing the accumulation of unused and expired pharmaceuticals, (2) disposal practices, (3) environmental and human health hazards, (4) mitigation and control measures, and (5) future research directions.

The present review applied a semi-quantitative approach combining: (1) Boolean search and retrieval of articles from scholarly databases (Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect) and (2) subsequent qualitative analysis of the evidence. Screening and analysis. Boolean searches were conducted at two levels: (1) Retrieval of literature related to disposal practices of unused and/or expired pharmaceuticals.

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