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Where Is The Cytoplasm Located In A Plant Cell

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Similarities And Differences Between Plant And Animal Cells • Microbe Online

Plant cell, the basic unit of all plants. Plant cells, like animal cells, are eukaryotic, meaning they have a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. The following is a brief overview of some of the most important characteristics of plant cells. For a more in-depth discussion of cells,

Unlike animal cells, plant cells have a cell wall around the cell membrane. Although often viewed as an inactive product that serves mainly mechanical and structural purposes, the cell wall actually has a multitude of functions upon which plant life depends. Plant cell walls are composed of cellulose, which distinguishes them from other organisms with cell walls, such as bacteria (peptidoglycan) and fungi (chitin). Algal cell walls are similar to those of plants, and many contain specific polysaccharides that are useful for taxonomy.

Plant cells can be distinguished from most other cells by the presence of chloroplasts, which are also found in certain algae. A chloroplast is a type of plastid (a saclike organelle with a double membrane) that serves as the site of photosynthesis, the process by which energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy for growth. Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll to absorb light energy. In plants, these essential organelles occur in all green tissues, although they are mainly concentrated in the parenchyma cells of leaves.

Another important characteristic of many plant cells is the presence of one or more large vacuoles. Vacuoles are storage organelles, and those in plant cells allow them to reach a large size without accumulating the bulk that would make metabolism difficult. Inside the vacuole is the cell sap, a water solution of salts and sugars that are kept at a high concentration by the active transport of ions through the vacuole membrane. Proton pumps also maintain high concentrations of protons in the vacuole interior. These high concentrations cause the entry, via osmosis, of water into the vacuole, which in turn expands the vacuole and generates a hydrostatic pressure, called turgor, which presses the cell membrane against the cell wall. Turgor is the cause of rigidity in living plant tissue. In a mature plant cell, as much as 90 percent of cell volume may be taken up by a single vacuole; immature cells typically contain several smaller vacuoles. If it has been a long time since high school biology and you are rusty on the concept of cytoplasm, you can be forgiven. It’s not something most of us think about very often, but it’s important to potato farming, so let’s take a look.

Plant Cell Diagram

Cytoplasm is everything that is inside a cell, but outside the nucleus. The nucleus mainly contains DNA, in the form of chromosomes, which determines almost all the properties of the organism. The cytoplasm contains a diverse array of cellular machinery in a fluid medium. Two pieces of that cellular machinery, the mitochondria and the chloroplasts, are very important in plant breeding. Chloroplasts produce glucose through photosynthesis and mitochondria convert glucose into ATP, which the cell uses as an energy source. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria contain their own genetic code and it is inherited separately from the DNA in the nucleus. They have separate DNA from the nucleus presumably because they were once separate organisms. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are generally accepted to have once been other single-celled life forms that were incorporated into the cell at the end of a long mutualistic relationship. The details are not important, but if you think of the mitochondria and chloroplasts as two separate organisms, this will all make more sense. The genetic code of the mitochondria and the chloroplasts is collectively known as the “cytoplasmic genome,” presumably because people got tired of typing “mitochondrial genome and chloroplast genome.” We shorten that even more when we talk about plant breeding to just “cytoplasm.”

(Although not important in the context of this post, there are additional organelles in the cytoplasm that contain their own genetic code. They are known as leucoplasts as a group.  In potato, one important leucoplast is the amyloplast, which produces and stores starch. As with the mitochondria and chloroplasts, they are thought to have originated as separate organisms, probably cyanobacteria. These are also part of the cytoplasmic genome, but they are less studied. Viruses that residing in the cell can also be considered part of the cytoplasmic genome. So, when we talk about the cytoplasmic genome, we usually simplify a lot.)

During sexual reproduction, the DNA in the nucleus is mixed and matched. Chromosomes of the male and female combine and combine, so that the resulting offspring has a mix of genes from both parents. The situation is completely different for mitochondria and chloroplasts. When the potato flower forms an egg cell, it is derived from an existing cell and inherits its set of mitochondria and chloroplasts from the potato plant. Later, when that egg fuses with a sperm, it only retains the sperm’s DNA. It retains the cytoplasm it originally received. The most important thing to understand here is that the cytoplasm is always inherited from the mother. They are genetically identical to the mother’s copies. Nuclear DNA is a mix of mother and father, but cytoplasmic DNA is always mother.

Why does this matter? Because potato varieties each carry their own unique mitochondria and chloroplasts and these sometimes give important properties.

Cells And The Versatile Functions Of Their Parts

Potato cytoplasm is classified under a number of different types, mainly defined by the population of potatoes from which that cytoplasm originated. As with many aspects of potato research, classification of cytoplasm types has evolved over time and several different systems have been used. The most modern system (Hosaka 2012) includes both chloroplasts and mitochondria in one classification system. The types are M (Mother), A (Andigena), P (Phureja), W (Wild), D (Demissum), and T (Tuberosum). There are also separate classification systems for chloroplasts and mitochondria. Chloroplasts are classified as C, A, S, W and T. Mitochondria are classified as α (alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma), and the much less common d (delta) and e (epsilon). You need to be aware of both systems to read the literature and some parts, especially the mitochondrial types, are still commonly used. There are also some much rarer species that do not fit into these groups. One system of classification divides cytoplasm into 164 haplotypes, a level of resolution that is probably not useful to breeders. The following chart includes types defined by both systems that are commonly used in research papers. The bold rows are the most modern system.

Sometimes found in the Andean country cultivated potatoes but more often in the wild ancestors from which they came. Previously described as C (Canasense) type.

Species: S. acaule, S. acroscopicum, S. agrimoniifolium, S. candolleanum, S. colombianum, S. dolichocremastrum, S. flahaultii, S. iopetalum, S. juzepczukii, S. lignicaule, S. longiconicum, S. medians, S. multiinterruptum, S. raphanifolium

Very rare in modern potatoes; if present, it probably indicates breeding with S. acaule. Found in only 0.3% of European potatoes (Sanetomo 2015) and 0.2% of Japanese potatoes (Hosaka 2012).

Chloroplasts Are The Plant Cells That Manufacture Energy

Unusual in modern potatoes, because andigena potatoes are more often used than pollen parent. Found in only 0.7% of European potatoes (Sanetomo 2015) and 1.2% of Japanese potatoes (Hosaka 2012).

The most common cytoplasm type in tetraploid andigena potatoes, with the possible exception of Bolivia, where C-type cytoplasm is also common.

Species: 2x S. tuberosum subsp. andigenum (Phureja and Stenotomum type potatoes), some 4x S. t. subsp. andigenum, S. ajanhuiri and S. curtilobum, some S. candolleanum.

Unusual in modern potatoes, as phureja potatoes are more commonly used as pollen parent. The exception is Japan, where Phureja has been used as a female parent in several popular breeding lines. Absent in European potatoes (Sanetomo 2015), but found in 6.4% of Japanese potatoes (Hosaka 2012).

Illustration Of The Plant Cell Anatomy Structure. Vector Infographic With Nucleus, Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Cytoplasm, Wall Membrane Etc Stock Vector

Chilean cultivated potatoes and most wild potatoes. Subtypes, located at the bottom of the table, are defined based on a mitochondrial marker. Rarely found in Andean domesticated potatoes in the southern Andes.

Species: S. boliviense, S. brevicaule, S. chacoense, S. immite, S. pinnatisectum, S. sogarandinum, S. stoloniferum, S. vernei, more listed below

Just in modern potatoes. Found in 12.2% of European potatoes (Sanetomo 2015) and 2.3% of Japanese potatoes (Hosaka 2012).

Common in modern potatoes, very common in German varieties. Found in 27.4% of European potatoes (Sanetomo 2015) and 17.8% of Japanese potatoes (Hosaka 2012).

Plant Cell Organelles

Species: S. berthaultii, S. neorossii, S. tuberosum subsp. chilotanum, most modern potatoes, sometimes found in Andean potatoes in the southern Andes, although it is not entirely clear whether they should be considered andigena if they have type T cytoplasm.

Varieties: All Blue (Congo) 2, Beauty of Hebron, Desiree, Early

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