What Is The Role Of Vitamin K – Untargeted and targeted metabolomics and in vivo characterization of tryptophan decarboxylase provide novel insights into kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) development

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What Is The Role Of Vitamin K

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Vitamin K: Double Bonds Beyond Coagulation – Insights into the Differences between Vitamin K1 and K2 in Health and Disease

Vitamin K: Benefits, Side Effects & Dosage |

Maurice Halder Maurice Halder Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1, †, Ploingarm Petsophonsakul Ploingarm Petsophonsakul Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 2, †, Asim Cengiz Akbulut S Asim Cengiz Akbulut Scilit † Angelina, Angelina Pavlic, Angelina Pavlic Preprints.org Google Scholar 2 , †, Frode Bohan Frode Bohan Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 3, Eric Anderson Eric Anderson Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 3, Katarzyna Maresz Katarzyna Maresz Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar Kramann 4, Rafa Kramann Preprints.org Google Scholar 1 and Leon Schurgers Leon Schurgers Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1, 2, *

Received: 24.01.2019 / Modified: 15.02.2019 / Accepted: 16.02.2019 / Published: 19.02.2019

(This article belongs to the topic Molecular aspects of the action of vitamin K and related compounds)

Vitamin K is an important bioactive compound that is necessary for the body to function optimally. Vitamin K can exist in different isoforms, distinguished by two main structures, namely phylloquinone (K1) and menaquinones (K2). The difference in structure between K1 and K2 is reflected in different absorption rates, tissue distribution and bioavailability. Although structurally different, both act as a cofactor for the enzyme gamma-glutamylcarboxylase, involving both hepatic and extrahepatic activity. Only carboxylated proteins are active and promote a health profile such as hemostasis. In addition, vitamin K2 in MK-7 form has been shown to be a bioactive compound in the regulation of osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, cancer and inflammatory diseases without the risk of negative side effects or overdose. This review is the first to highlight differences between vitamin K1 and K2 isoforms based on source, function, and extrahepatic activity.

The Ultimate Vitamin K2 Resource |

Vitamin K was first identified in 1936 as a key factor in blood clotting. When chickens were fed a low-fat diet, they had a significantly reduced clotting ability, resulting in severe bleeding [1]. The lipid fraction of the diet was analyzed and a new hemorrhagic factor was discovered. This lipid-soluble factor was given the first letter in the existing alphabet, which coincided with the first letter of the German word “Coagulation” and was considered important only for its anti-hemorrhagic property [1]. Since then, non-coagulant functions have been discovered and have attracted research interest in several fields around the world. The vitamin K family consists of several fat-soluble molecules with similar structures that contain a 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone ring structure called menadione. Menadione (K3) is of synthetic origin, although it is not included in this review due to the reported adverse effects of hemolysis and hepatotoxicity [2, 3, 4]. Vitamin K naturally occurs as two vitamers: vitamin K1 (also known as phylloquinone) and vitamin K2 (also called menaquinones (MK)). Phylloquinone contains a phytyl side chain consisting of 4 prenyl units [5]. Menaquinones contain an unsaturated aliphatic side chain with a variable number of prenyl units. The number of prenyl units indicates the corresponding type of menaquinone. Vitamin K2 can be divided into subtypes, namely short-chain (ie, menaquinone-4; MK-4) and long-chain (ie, MK-7, MK-8, and MK-9). There is currently no official reference daily reference (RDI) for K2. Nevertheless, the health benefits of K2 in cardiovascular disease (CVD), bone metabolism, chronic kidney disease, and certain cancers have been investigated in recent decades. The purpose of this review is to highlight and clarify the differences between K1 and K2 in terms of source and function, with an emphasis on the noncoagulant mechanisms of vitamin K.

Vitamin K1 is the predominant form of vitamin K in food [6, 7]. K1 is predominantly found in green vegetables and plant chlorophyll, while K2 menaquinones are synthesized by bacteria [8] and are mainly found in food where bacteria are part of the production process [5, 9]. The main sources of K1 are spinach, cabbage and kale, and the absorption of dietary K1 is increased in the presence of butter or oils. In addition to leafy vegetables, K1 can also be found in fruits such as avocado, kiwi and grapes [10, 11]. The main known sources of K2 are fermented food, meat and dairy products [12] (Figure 1). Fermentation of soybeans with Bacillus natto produces Natto, a Japanese dish that contains the most K2, especially MK-7 (321 ng/g K1 and 10,985 ng/g K2) [13]. Dairy products are the second highest source of K2 in the diet. Menaquinones are considered the most in hard cheeses [14]. Other notable sources of K2 are chicken, egg yolks, sauerkraut, beef and salmon [12] (Figure 1).

One of the best representatives of this group, which contains both forms of vitamin K, is sauerkraut (22.4 μg per 100 g K1 and 5.5 μg per 100 g K2) [14]. Green leafy vegetables have the most vitamin K1. Vitamin K1 content in collards (706 μg per 100 g), turnips (568 μg per 100 g), spinach (96.7 μg per 100 g), kale (75.3 μg per 100 g), broccoli (146.7 μg per 100 g), roasted soybeans (57.3 μg per 100 g) and carrot juice (25.5 μg per 100 g) [7, 15, 16].

A US-led study has shown that fruits and nuts generally do not contain K1, with the exception of kiwi (33.9-50.3 μg per 100 g), avocado (15.7-27.0 μg per 100 g), blueberries (14 ,7–14,7). 27.2 μg per 100 g), blackberries (14.7-25.1 ug per 100 g), red and green grapes (13.8-18.1 μg per 100 g), dried figs (11.4-20 .0 μg per 100 g) and prunes (51.1-6. μg per 100 g). K1 was present in several nuts during this study; pine nuts (33.4–73.7 μg/100 g), cashews (19.4–64.3 μg/100 g) and pistachios (10.1–15.1 μg/100 g) [10]. Other fruits and nuts described in the study contain insignificant amounts of vitamin K1. In addition, dietary vitamin K from fruits and nuts does not affect anticoagulant therapy in patients receiving warfarin [10].

Why Is A Vitamin K Deficiency Dangerous ?

The vitamin K content of cheeses varies depending on many production factors, such as ripening time and regional differences. They determine not only the type of cheese, but also the fat and nutrient content. Typically, hard Dutch cheeses contain more K2 than softer Mediterranean cheeses. This is most likely influenced by the duration of the fermentation process and the nature of the bacterial strains used [14]. Although none of these cheeses can be considered an individual source of vitamin K2, consumption may contribute to total vitamin K levels [17]. Vitamin K1 and K2 were evaluated in European cheeses and the highest amount of K1 was found in Roquefort (6.56 μg per 100 g), Pecorino (5.56 μg per 100 g), Brie (4.92 μg per 100 g), Boursin (4 .55 μg per 100 g). g), Norvegia (4.37 μg per 100 g), Stilton (3.62 μg per 100 g) [14]. Other cheeses tested contained less than 3 μg per 100 g. Total vitamin K2 content was highest in Münster (80.1 μg per 100 g), Camembert (68.1 μg per 100 g), Gamalost (54.2 μg per 100 g), Stilton (49.4 μg per 100 g), Emmental (43.3 per 100 g). ), Norvegia (41.5 μg per 100 g), Roquefort (38.1 μg per 100 g) and Raclette (32.3 μg per 100 g). The rest of the examined cheeses contained less than 3 μg per 100 g of vitamin K2 [14].

Vitamin K is found in meat and fish, although the total content of vitamin K varies depending on the origin of the meat [15]. For example, the amount of MK-4 in chicken differs from the United States (13.6–31.6 μg/100 g) compared to the Netherlands (5.8–11.3 μg/100 g) and Japan (27)

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