How Many Different Races Are In The World – It has been used for thousands of years to identify and separate people. But the concept of race is not based on genetics.

The four letters of the genetic code — A, C, G and T — were projected onto Ugandan Ryan Linarmillar. DNA reveals what skin color hides: We all have African ancestors.

How Many Different Races Are In The World

This story is part of a National Geographic Channel special that explores how race defines, divides, and unites us.

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One of America’s most prominent scientists in the first half of the 19th century was Dr. Samuel Morton. Morton lived in Philadelphia and collected skulls.

He was not impressed with his suppliers. He accepted skulls scavenged from battlefields and plucked from catacombs. One of his most famous skulls belonged to an Irishman sent to Tasmania as a convict (and eventually hanged for killing and eating other convicts). Morton followed the same procedure with each skull: He filled it with peppercorns — he later switched to lead — and then decanted it to determine the volume of the meninges.

Morton believed that humans could be divided into five races, and that they represented individual acts of creation. Races had distinctive characters that corresponded to their place in the god-ordained hierarchy. Morton’s “craniometry” showed that whites or “Caucasians” were the most intelligent of the races. East Asians—Morton used the term “Mongol,” but “resourceful” and “cultivating” were a step down. Next came Southeast Asians, followed by Native Americans. Blacks or “Ethiopians” were at the bottom. In the decades leading up to the Civil War, Morton’s ideas were quickly adopted by anti-slavery advocates.

Skulls from the collection of the father of scientific racism, Samuel Morton, illustrate his classification of humans into five races, which he said arose from the actions of individual creatures. From left to right: a black woman and a white man, both American; Native person from Mexico; Chinese woman; and a Malaysian man.

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“It had a lot of influence, especially in the South,” says Paul Wolf Mitchell, an anthropologist at the University of Pennsylvania, who is showing a collection of skulls now housed at the Penn Museum. We are above the brain of a particularly large Dutchman who helped Morton assess the Caucasian possibilities. When Morton died in 1851, the Medical Journal of Charleston, South Carolina praised him for “giving the Negro his true position as an inferior race.”

Today, Morton is known as the father of scientific racism. Much of the suffering of the last few centuries can be traced back to the idea that one race is inferior to another, so a tour of his collection is a fascinating experience. To an uncomfortable extent, we still live with Morton’s legacy: racial distinctions continue to shape our politics, our neighborhoods, and our sense of self.

Even if this is the opposite of what Morton says, what science has to tell us about race.

The results of National Geographic’s Geno 2.0 DNA Ancestry Kit revealed that these seemingly unrelated people share a common genetic profile. Read more here.

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Morton thought he had identified immutable and heritable differences between people, but at the time he was working—long before Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution and the discovery of DNA—scientists did not know how traits were transmitted. Since then, researchers who have looked at humans at the genetic level now believe that the entire category of race is incorrect. Indeed, when scientists set out to compile the first complete human genome from multiple individuals, they deliberately collected samples from people who considered themselves to be of different races. In June 2000, when the results were announced at a White House ceremony, DNA sequencing pioneer Craig Venter observed, “The concept of race has no genetic or scientific basis.”

Over the past few decades, genetic research has revealed two profound truths about humans. The first is that all humans are closely related – more closely related than all chimpanzees, even though there are many people today. Everyone has the same set of genes, but with the exception of identical twins, some of them are slightly different. Studying this genetic diversity has allowed scientists to reconstruct a type of human population. This revealed a second profound truth: in a real sense, all people living today are Africans.

Our species, Homo sapiens, evolved in Africa – no one is sure of the exact time and place. The most recent fossil found in Morocco shows that anatomically modern human features began to appear 300,000 years ago. For the next 200,000 years we remained in Africa, but during that period groups moved to different parts of the continent and became isolated from each other, founding new populations.

The DNA profiles of these two are almost 99 percent identical. Any two people’s genes are, of course, more similar. But after our prehuman ancestors shed most of their body hair, we develop very visible differences in skin color. A minor correction to our DNA account for them. Dark pigmentation would have helped our ancestors cope with the intense African sun; when people migrated from Africa to regions with less sunlight, light skin was favored.

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In humans, as in all species, genetic changes are the result of random mutations—small adjustments to DNA, the code of life. Mutations occur at a more or less constant rate, so the longer a group survives and passes its genes on from generation to generation, the more these genes accumulate. Furthermore, the longer the two groups are separated, the more distinct adjustments they tend to have.

By analyzing the genes of modern Africans, researchers have concluded that the Ho-San, who now live in southern Africa, are one of the oldest branches of the human race. The Pygmies of Central Africa also have a very long history as a distinct group. This means that the deepest division in the human family is usually not between different races—whites or blacks or Asians or Native Americans. They are among African populations such as the Ho-San and the Pygmies, who were separated from each other for tens of thousands of years before they left Africa.

All non-Africans today are genetically descended from us, a few thousand people who left Africa 60,000 years ago. These migrants were closely related to groups living in East Africa today, including the Hadza of Tanzania. Since they are only a small part of the African population, the migrants took only a fraction of their genetic diversity with them.

Along the way, perhaps in the Middle East, the travelers encountered and had sex with another human species, the Neanderthals; In the east they met another Denisovans. Both species are thought to have evolved from early hominins that migrated from Africa in Eurasia. Some scientists also believe that the 60,000-year-old migration was the second wave of modern humans leaving Africa. So, judging by our genome today, the second wave eclipsed the first wave.

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Relatively speaking, the descendants of these migrants have spread throughout the world at a great rate. 50,000 years ago they reached Australia. 45,000 years ago they settled in Siberia, and 15,000 years ago they reached South America. As they migrated to different parts of the world, they formed new groups that were geographically isolated from each other and in the process acquired their own unique set of genetic mutations.

Most of these adjustments were neither beneficial nor harmful. But sometimes a mutation appeared that was effective in a new situation. It spread rapidly through the local population under the pressure of natural selection. For example, oxygen levels are low at high altitudes, so there was a premium on mutations that helped people cope with rarefied air for people who moved to the highlands of Ethiopia, Tibet, or the Andean Altiplano. Similarly, genetic changes in Inuit who ate a high-fatty-acid marine diet helped them adapt.

Sometimes it is clear that natural selection has favored the mutation, but why is not known. It refers to a version of the gene called EDAR (pronounced ee-dar). Most East Asians and Native Americans have at least one copy of a variant called 370A, and most have two. But it is rare among people of African and European descent.

The Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania, like Ondoshi Stefano, are among the closest relatives of the first people to come out of Africa.

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At the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, geneticist Yana Kamberov has outfitted mice with the East Asian version of EDAR, hoping to understand what it does. “They’re cute, aren’t they?” he says, opening the cage to show me. Mice look normal, with shiny brown coats and shiny black eyes. But under a microscope, they differ from their cute cousins

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